i.

If there was a single semiconductor chip maker the average consumer is aware of it would likely be Intel. If not for the famous Intel "chime" as heard in many television commercials throughout the years then definitely for the fact that it would be difficult not to encounter its technologies in some form whether at work, school or otherwise. Intel is the premier chip maker for personal computers—companies such as Apple, Dell, HP, Samsung, Sony have product lines that depend on the processors that Intel produces. Intel's processors generally offer the best performance for all-around usage. This has been especially the case the last several years with the introduction and evolution of Intel's Core series product line. Currently, Intel's flagship consumer product line consists of mobile and desktop-grade Core i3, Core i5 and Core i7 processors now in their second generation (dubbed "Sandy Bridge"). The third and latest generation of these processors (dubbed "Ivy Bridge") began to roll out for release late April 2012. The biggest difference between these two generations amounts to a moderate improvement in all-around computing performance but a substantial improvement in integrated graphics performance. Another significant feature Ivy Bridge adds is native USB 3.0 support, overtaking USB 2.0.

Let me list down all the major processor models released by Intel.

• Pentium 1, 2, 3, 4
• Celeron
• Pentium M and Celeron M for mobile devices
• Pentium Dual Core
• Core Solo
• Core Duo
• Core 2 Duo
• Core 2 Quad
• Core i3, i5, i7

What is Intel Processor Generations?

Intel processor generations is simply have the enhanced feature set and speed than the previous generations. Let’s discuss each generation separately.

1st Generation Intel Processors – Nehalem (Relase date: November'2008 )

Nehalem was the Intel processor micro-architecture which was successor to the initial Core architecture which had certain limitations like inability to increase clock speed, inefficient pipeline etc.

Nehalem used 45 nanometer process as opposed to the 65nm or 90nm used by previous architectures. Nehalem reintroduced hyper-threading technology which was left out mainly in the initial Core i3 processor models.

The Nehalem processor has a 64 KB L1 cache, 256 KB per core L2 cache and 4 MB to 12 MB L3 cache which is shared with all the processor cores.

2nd Generation Intel Processors – Sandy Bridge (Relase date: January'2011 )

Sandy Bridge micro-architecture was introduced in 2011 to replace Nehalem architecture. Sandy Bridge uses 32 nanometer process as opposed to 45 nm used in Nehalem. Sandy Bridge processor average performance enhancement as compared to Nehalem was about 11.3%.

Sandy Bridge uses the same 64 KB L1 cache and 256 KB per core for L2 cache but the difference is in the L3 cache. Normally the Sandy Bridge processor L3 cache was from 1MB to 8 MB. For extreme processors, it was from 10 MB to 15 MB.

3rd Generation Intel Processors – Ivy Bridge (Relase date: April'2012)

Ivy Bridge processors are faster than Sandy Bridge processors and use 22 nanometer process as opposed to 32 nm used in Sandy Bridge. This processor model consumes up to 50% less energy and will give 25% to 68% increase in performance as compared to Sandy Bridge processors.

The only problem with Ivy Bridge processors is that they may emit more heat as compared to Sandy Bridge processors.

4th Generation Intel Processors – Haswell (Relase date: June'2013)

Haswell is the latest generation processor which is released by Intel. It uses the same 22 nm process like Ivy Bridge. The performance improvement of Haswell as compared to Ivy bridge is from 3% to 8%.Haswell carries a lot of features from Ivy Bridge with some very exciting new features like support for new sockets (LGA 1150, BGA 1364, LGA 2011-3), DDR4 technology, a completely new cache design etc.

The main benefit of Haswell is that it can be used in ultra portable devices due to its low power consumption.

5th Generation Intel Processors – Broadwell (Relase date: Launched: May'2014 )

The new chips are 37% smaller than the previous generation, using Intel's new 14nm process. Intel emphasizes the performance gains in Broadwell, especially battery life improvements. Intel says that battery life could improve by as much as 1.5 hours. The chips also enable faster wake times and improved graphics performance.

The 5th generation chips are also designed with Internet-connected devices and more immersive experiences, such as voice interactions with your devices, in mind. The new lineup includes the Intel Core i3, Core i5, Core i5 vPro, Core i7, and Core i7 vPro. There are also new Celeron and Pentium processors based on the 14nm process, as well as 14nm chips for tablets, with the codename of Cherry Trail. Cherry Trail devices are expected some time in the first half of this year.

6th Generation Intel Processors – Skylake (Launched: August'2015 )

These Skylake processors will have several features that include increase IA and graphics performance at much lower power than their predecessors. While the TDP remains 95W, Intel has further improved the efficiency of these new chips hence delivering much better performance. The Skylake processors will support both DDR3L and DDR4 memory types. The DDR3L memory will be available on the mini-PC designs such as All-in-ones and NUCs while tradditional PCs which will get Z170 and H170 series motherboards will have native support for DDR4 DIMMs. The unlocked processors options which are also the Enthusiast CPUs as detailed above will allow enhanced full range BCLK overclocking. Hopefully, Intel will use better TIM or Soldering to prevent any heating issues on the dense 14nm chips. Other features includes Turbo Boost 2.0, Hyper Threading, DMI 3.0, 3 digital displays capability (including embedded Display Ports), HEVC, VP8, VVP9, AMCs and support for the latest APIs such as DirectX 12, OpenGL 4.3/4.4 and OpenCL 2.0.

ii.

Though not considered the behemoth in the personal computing space as Intel, AMD is a decisive runner-up—and arguably the only true competitor Intel has in this domain. After spending much of the early to middle 2000's as being the performance and value leader with their Athlon 64 line of personal computing processors, AMD—unable to mimic this success in more recent years, has shifted their focus towards both enthusiast and budget-oriented system configurations. As a result, AMD is considered to be a viable alternative to Intel. Their current offerings are flanked by the Phenom series processors and Fusion APU processors. The Fusion APU (AMD A-Series) is a relatively new platform (as of 2011 and ongoing) that attempts to merge high-end graphical capabilities on the same chip as the processor. This means if your work or play requires a powerful graphics card, then AMD can potentially offer a cost effective alternative.

iii.

The increased need for mobile productivity and entertainment has given rise to a relatively new class of devices: smartphones and tablets. ARM is well-known for the design of mobile, power-efficient processor designs. In recent years it has seen its technology used in the products of many prominent electronics companies. Apple's A4/A5/A5X, Nvidia's Tegra, Samsung's Exynos and Texas Instruments' OMAP products all integrate ARM processors into what is known as a system-on-a-chip (SoC). SoCs merge many of the essential components of a computer (such as the CPU, RAM, ROM etc.) on a single chip which allows devices that utilize them to be lightweight and compact. These SoCs have gone on to be implemented in blockbuster products such as Apple's iPhone and iPad or Samsung's series of Galaxy phones. ARM's presence as the CPU and architecture of choice on many mobile devices cannot be understated as estimates put their numbers in the billions.

Processor Comparison Table:

Intel Comparison Table

	Recommended For	Last Generation Released (Codename)	Number of Cores	Notable Features	Additional Product Information	Product Commentary
Core i7	Enthusiasts, Superior All-Around Performance, Multi-tasking, Multimedia Creation, Advanced Productivity and Advanced 3D Graphics	2012 ("Ivy Bridge") and upcoming	2, 4	(1) Hyper-Threading (2) Turbo Boost (3) QuickPath InterConnect (4) Tri-Gate (3D) Transistors (5) Intel HD Graphics (6) 64-bit	Intel	The Intel Core i7 represents the company's most feature robust processor offering. They are Intel's flagship series of processor, achieving the greatest levels of relative performance. As an excellent all-around processor, the i7 is ideal for enthusiasts, gamers, power users and content creators alike. They are available for both desktop and notebook platforms. The current generation of i7 (as well as i3 and i5) processors is Ivy Bridge as of Mid-2012.
Core i5	All-Around Performance, Multi-tasking, Advanced Producivity, Multimedia, Advanced 3D Graphics	2012 ("Ivy Bridge") and upcoming	2, 4	(1) Hyper-Threading (on i5 Mobile Dual-Core only, not available on Quad-Core desktop version) (2) Turbo Boost (3) QuickPath InterConnect (4) Tri-Gate (3D) Transistors (5) Intel HD Graphics (6) 64-bit	Intel	The Intel Core i5 is a class of high-performance processor just a notch beneath the i7. Though they generally possess same features as the i7 with some exceptions (see Features), they have less cache (L3) memory which amounts to similar, but lesser all-around performance. Like the i7 and i3, the i5 features Intel's high performance integrated graphics in the HD 3000/4000. Most users will find the general level of perfomance offered by the i5 to be an attractive option compared to a more expensive i7-equipped system.
Core i3	Productivity, Multi-tasking, Basic Graphics, Multimedia	2012 ("Ivy Bridge") and upcoming	2, 4	(1) Hyper-Threading (2) QuickPath InterConnect (3) Tri-Gate (3D) Transistors (4) Intel HD Graphics 3000 (5) 64-bit	Intel	The Intel Core i3 processor is the closest successor to the now out-of-production Core2Duo processor. The most significant differences between the i3 and i5/i7 is the lack of Turbo Boost and less cache (L3) memory. The i3 offers moderate all-around performance and is often found in budget-oriented systems.
Pentium (Post-2009)	Productivity, E-mail, and Web Browsing, Photos and Music	2011 ("Sandy Bridge")	2	Hyper-Threading (however, most currently do not support this feature)	Intel	The Intel Pentium as a product line had built a strong reputation with consumers in the 90's through the early 2000s with the Pentium I/II/III/4 series. Formerly a flagship line of processor, the Pentium is currently in production as a budget-oriented option just above the Celeron in terms of relative performance. The most recent iteration of the Pentium takes some architectural cues from the Core i series with the 2011 Pentium based on the Sandy Bridge, offering performance suitable for most basic tasks.
Celeron (Post-2010)	Productivity, E-mail, and Web Browsing, Photos and Music	2011 ("Sandy Bridge")	2	64-bit	Intel	Throughout its many iterations, the Intel Celeron has occupied the lower end of the processor market in terms of both price and performance. Updates to the Celeron based on current generation architecture have been made to keep the processor relevant. The improvements are enough such that they allow for running current productivity packages and web applications. They are best considered for an entry-level system.
Atom	Basic Productivity, E-mail, and Web Browsing	2012 ("Cedar Trail") and upcoming	1, 2	(1) Hyper-Threading (2) 64-bit	Intel	The Intel Atom belongs almost exclusively to a class of personal computers known as netbooks (nettops and tablets are the lesser common instances). The Atom is focused not so much on performance as it is on reducing power consumption. As a result, many netbooks offer excellent battery life at the cost of being unable to run more sophisticated applications beyond web browsing and word processing. Generally speaking, netbook processors such as the Atom do not see substantial performance gains with subsequent generations.
Retiring/Retired Product Lines
Core 2 Duo & Core 2 Quad	Multi-tasking, Productivity and Multimedia	2008	2, 4	64-Bit	Intel - Core 2 Duo - Core 2 Quad	Though the Core 2 Duo and Core 2 Quad processors are still in production, the platform has been succeeded by the Core i Series since late 2008. Despite this, these processors are still very serviceable providing adequate levels of performance for multitasking to varying levels of multimedia creation and productivity applications.
Core Solo/Core Duo/Centrino & Celeron (Pre-2010)	Basic Productivity, E-mail, and Web Browsing	2006	1, 2	32-bit	N/A	The Core Duo/Duo Centrino processors preceded both the Core2 and Core i series of processor. Generally do not recommend running current software for optimal use; consideration of an upgrade path is recommended soon.
Pentium III & Pentium 4	Legacy software and operating system	Late 90s/Early 2000s	1	Pentium 4: mostly 32-bit later versions 64-bit, w/Hyper- Threading	N/A	An upgrade path is highly recommended; Usefulness is relegated to doing basic tasks such as running older versions of Microsoft Office or browsing webpages absent of the latest media or plugins such as Flash or Java.

AMD Comparison Table

	Recommended For	Last Generation Released (Codename)	Number of Cores	Notable Features	Additional Product Information	Product Commentary
FX	Desktop Enthusiasts, All-Around High Performance	2012 ("Bulldozer") and upcoming	4, 6, 8	(1) HyperTransport (2) Integrated DRAM Controller with AMD Memory Optimizer (2) AMD Turbo CORE (3) AMD Virtualization (4) AMD PowerNow! (Cool'n'Quiet)	(1) AMD (2) Architectural Features	Available exclusively on desktop platforms, AMD FX targets custom builders and enthusiasts. This is a processor that far surpasses the needs of the average user. However, given the amount of performance it provides combined with the relative low cost, it becomes an attractive option for budget custom PC builds. The FX along with the A-Series, represent AMD's current flagship products and later releases within these product lines are planned.
A-Series (Fusion)	A4: Basic  All-Around Use/Productivity, Casual Gaming A6, A8: All-Around Performance, Multimedia, Advanced 3D Graphics	2012 ("Trinity") and upcoming	A4: 2 A6, A8: 4	DirectX 11 Capable Graphics	(1) AMD (2) Notebook Features	The AMD A-Series (AMD Fusion) are a type of chip that merges the CPU with a high-performance GPU (graphics processing unit) resulting in a versatile system that is very power efficient. They are available in desktops, laptops and most recently, ultrabooks. Where the A4 APU is found in less expensive, entry level systems, the A6 and A8 are more suited for all-around use w/advanced graphics applications (such as gaming or 3D modeling). In May 2012, AMD released the next generation of Fusion A-Series processors known as "Trinity", these processors promise much greater graphical and general purpose performance. AMD has aligned Trinity as an answer to Intel's Ivy Bridge.
Phenom II	Advanced Productivity, HD Video, 3D Graphics, Photos and Music	2010	2, 3, 4, 6	(1) HyperTransport™ (2) Integrated DRAM Controller with AMD Memory Optimizer  (3) AMD Turbo CORE (4) AMD PowerNow! (Cool'n'Quiet) (5) AMD CoolCore!	(1) AMD  (2) Key Architectural Features	The AMD Phenom II is primarily a class of high-performance desktop processor.In 2010, AMD claimed to be the first in the industry to offer a consumer class six-core processor though the X6. Mobile variants of the Phenom II were introduced as well, but not in the six-core flavor. Though new generations of this product line are no longer in the works, this line of processor is still sold as a low-cost, budget-oriented option for custom system builds. The performance of this processor is more than enough for everyday usage and productivity.
Athlon II	Basic Multi-tasking, Productivity and Multimedia Applications	2011 and upcoming	2, 3, 4	(1) AMD Virtualization (2) AMD PowerNow! (Cool'n'Quiet) (3) AMD CoolCore!	(1) AMD  (2) Key Architectural Features	The Athlon II is a relatively recent processor taking design cues from the Phenom II. Unlike the Athlon Classic, is still in production and far more suited to current productivity applications such as Microsoft Office as well as multitasking and multimedia applications. It is found in both laptops and desktops as a reasonably-powered, cost-effective option.
Turion II	Productivity, Photos, and Music	2010	1, 2	(1) HyperTransport (2) 64-bit	AMD	The Turion II is a processor based from the same architecture in the Phenom II and Athlon II. It was introduced as a competitor to Intel's Core 2 Duo. As a result, its performance should be very suitable for productivity software. They designed with power efficiency in mind and is found primarily in notebook configurations.
Sempron	Basic Productivity, E-mail, and Web Browsing	2010	1, 2	(1) HyperTransport (2) 64-bit	AMD	The Sempron is the AMD analogue to the Intel Celeron. It offers very basic levels of performance and is updated every so often so as to offer an inexpensive option capable of running recent versions of productivity software such as Office 2010 as well as web applications.
Retiring/Retired Product Lines
Phenom	Multi-tasking, HD Video, Basic Graphics	2008	2, 3, 4	(1) HyperTransport (2) AMD PowerNow! (Cool'n'Quiet)  (3) AMD CoolCore!	AMD	The AMD Phenom processor preceded the Phenon II. Though the processor is no longer in production, it is generally considered lower-middle range in performance; suitable for multi-tasking and more than casual use. The Phenom was available only for desktop platforms.
Athlon (Classic)	Web Browsing, E-mail	Not In production (1999-2005)	1, 2	32-bit or 64-bit	N/A	Formerly known as just the Athlon, the Athlon Classic has not been in production since 2005. The kind of performance is extremely limited for today's applications and is recommended for only the most basic of uses. Generally, a complete system upgrade from this processor range would be advisable if your needs fall beyond web browsing and e-mail tasks.

Companies Utilizing ARM Architecture

	System-On-a-Chip (SoC)	Notable Product(s) Containing	Type of ARM Processor	Number of Cores	Additional Product Information
Apple	A4	iPhone 4, iPod Touch (4th Gen), iPad (1st Gen), AppleTV (2nd Gen)	Cortex-A8	1	Apple
	A5	iPhone 4S, iPad 2, AppleTV (3rd Gen)	Cortex-A9	2
	A5X	iPad (3rd Gen, Retina Display)	Cortex-A9	2
Samsung	Exynos 3 Single	Samsung Galaxy S, Samsung Galaxy Nexus S,	Cortex-A8	1	Samsung
	Exynos 4 Dual	Samsung Galaxy SII, Samsung Galaxy Note (International)	Cortex-A9	2
	Exynos 4 Quad	Samsung Galaxy SIII	Cortex-A9	4
	Exynos 5 Dual	N/A	Cortex-A15	2
Nvidia	Tegra	Microsoft Zune HD	ARM11	1	Nvidia
	Tegra 2	ASUS Eee Pad Transformer, Samsung Galaxy Tab 10.1, Motorola Xoom, Dell Streak 7 & Pro, Sony Tablet S	Cortex-A9	2
	Tegra 3	ASUS Transformer Pad 300, ASUS Nexus 7, Acer Iconia Tab A510 & A700, HTC One X	Cortex-A9	4
Qualcomm	Snapdragon S2	Nokia Lumia 900	N/A	1	Qualcomm
	Snapdragon S3	Galaxy Note LTE (AT&T), HP TouchPad	N/A	2
	Snapdragon S4	Samsung Galaxy SIII LTE, HTC EVO 4G LTE	N/A	2, 4
Texas Instruments	OMAP 3	Barnes and Noble Nook Color	Cortex-A8	1	Texas Instruments
	OMAP 4	Amazon Kindle Fire, Samsung Galaxy Tab 2, Blackberry Playbook, Samsung Galaxy Nexus, Barnes and Noble Nook Tablet	Cortex-A9	2
	OMAP 5	N/A	Cortex-A15	2

Benchmarks

It is important to note that there are a considerable amount of details that factor into the overall performance of any given processor beyond frequency (GHz). This is not a valid way to compare most processors, especially between competing companies and between generations. For example, an Intel Pentium 4 (a processor that is generations behind any current Intel i-series processor) running at 3.8 GHz is much slower compared than any i3, i5 or i7 running at lower GHz—the biggest reason for this is the improvement in architecture allowing for increases in the number of cores as well as improvements in other features (such as cache memory and bus technology) that allow the modern CPU to get more work done in a given clock cycle. Hence, it is more useful to compare frequencies and number of cores of processors across the same product line.

CPU benchmarking involves running a specific software tool or suite of tools which allow users to 'distill' an overall performance rating that can be used to rank against other processors. Computer hardware websites such as those listed below have aggregated rankings for all major desktop/notebook processors released within the last decade, allowing a prospective buyer to get a feel for the relative level of performance separating one processor from another. Further, these benchmarks when considered in tandem with the cost of a given processor also allow buyers to compare value as far as amount of performance per dollar. This is important since CPU performance does not necessarily correlate with price, especially across different makers.

The following links below provide comprehensive rankings for desktop and mobile processors.

Benchmark Links:

• http://www.cpubenchmark.net/

Desktop CPU Benchmarks:

• http://www.tomshardware.com/charts/desktop-cpu-charts-q3-2008/benchmarks,31.html

Mobile CPU Benchmarks:

• http://www.notebookcheck.net/Mobile-Processors-Benchmarklist.2436.0.html

Notable Features Demystified

FAQ

Q: What is the difference between a 32-bit and 64-bit processor?

A : From a practical standpoint, the true difference at hand is the ability to run a 32-bit operating system (OS) versus a 64-bit OS and their subsequent applications. Technically, 64-bit allows the processor to address larger chunks of data from physical memory (RAM) than their 32-bit counterparts. Hence, while the maximum amount of RAM for a 32-bit system is 4GB, for a 64-bit system there is no practical limit except where artificially imposed by a specific version of an OS or system manufacturer—for example, Windows 7 Home Edition allows for up to 16GB of RAM where Professional and Ultimate allows up to 192GB. The benefit of 64-bit arises in dealing with the increasing sophistication of applications as well as working with and processing large files with greater efficiency. Most modern CPUs such as any of Intel's iX series are 64-bit and virtually any new configuration of a machine with these processors include a 64-bit OS. It is important to note that while 64-bit CPUs can typically run 32-bit applications, the reverse is not true.

Q: What is the relationship between a processor and RAM? Why and when can a RAM upgrade make my system run faster?

A : Where the CPU acts as the brains of a computer, processing your input into output, Random Access Memory (RAM) can be considered an analogue to working memory. It is a fast type of volatile memory that the system uses to help process data. When the amount of RAM is overwhelmed by various processes on the system—which can happen if a user had begun using a more sophisticated OS with only the minimum amount of recommended RAM or if many applications are running at once—the OS resorts to using storage from the much slower hard disk drive to 'simulate' and compensate for the lack of RAM, this is known as virtual memory. Running many applications from virtual memory can result in general sluggishness, the CPU may be fast but it can process data only as quickly as the virtual memory can dispense it. In essence, a lack of sufficient RAM can lead to a system being 'bottlenecked'. Upgrading RAM can help ensure that the system is running on as little if any virtual memory as possible, this makes the machine more responsive especially when multi-tasking across several applications. Hence, the value of RAM is in its ability to ensure that the CPU is able to pull data as seamlessly as possible. If the current amount of RAM in a system is 'enough', adding more RAM will not serve to speed up the system any further. At this point, the system runs as fast as the CPU is capable of and depending on the needs of the user, a processor upgrade might be considered.